Law of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering: Between Innovation, Ethics, and Liability

Introduction

Biotechnology is one of the most revolutionary technological fields of the 21st century, leading to groundbreaking discoveries that directly affect human life. With the advancement of genetic engineering, applications such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs), gene therapies, tools like CRISPR for targeted genome editing, and personalized medicine have entered daily medical and agricultural practice. However, these innovations have created not only scientific but also legal, ethical, and societal challenges.

This article examines the current legal issues surrounding biotechnology and genetic engineering, focusing on intellectual property rights, ethical oversight, legal liability in medical practices, and international regulatory frameworks.

1. Genetic Engineering and Legal Restrictions

Modern genetic engineering has taken a leap forward with CRISPR/Cas9 technology, which enables precise modification of specific genes. However, such interventions raise significant legal concerns:

• Modifying human genetics, especially heritable changes, is subject to national and international legal restrictions.
• In Türkiye, unauthorized interventions that alter human genetic structure fall under Article 90 of the Turkish Penal Code, and carry serious criminal sanctions.
• Bioethical principles prioritize respect for human dignity, privacy, and bodily autonomy. Therefore, before any genetic intervention, ethics committee approval, informed consent, and scientific justification are legally required.

2. Intellectual Property Protection: Patentability of Genetic Inventions

Innovations in genetic engineering typically require high R&D investment, making intellectual property protection a key driver of growth in this sector.

• Under the European Patent Convention and the TRIPS Agreement, genetic materials, isolated gene sequences, synthetic DNA structures, and biotechnological products may be patented under certain conditions.
• However, patent claims on human genes are ethically and legally controversial, since the human body is regarded not as an “invention” but as a “natural entity.”
• The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics clarified that naturally occurring human DNA sequences cannot be patented, setting boundaries in this domain.

3. Personalized Medicine and Legal Protection of Genetic Data

Personalized medicine, which develops tailored treatment plans based on genetic testing and individual disease predispositions, is reshaping medical practices.

But the data collected during these processes is highly sensitive:

• Genetic data is classified as “sensitive personal data” under both Türkiye’s Personal Data Protection Law (KVKK) and the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), requiring strict security measures.
• Data-sharing agreements between genetic testing companies and hospitals must comply with legal obligations regarding explicit consent, data minimization, and data security.
• In the event of a data breach, both administrative fines and civil liability may arise.

4. International Legal Regulations and Ethical Standards

Standardization across countries is vital in biotechnology, especially regarding human genetics.

• The Oviedo Convention (Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine) allows genetic interventions only for “preventive, diagnostic, or therapeutic” purposes.
• UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights calls for scientific research to be conducted within ethical boundaries.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) provides guidance documents on genetic engineering for use by national regulators.

Conclusion

Biotechnology and genetic engineering offer transformative benefits in both healthcare and agriculture. However, their ethical and legal dimensions are too critical to overlook. These advancements must be evaluated not only through scientific perspectives but also within the dynamic interplay of legal norms and societal values.

The law’s role is not to hinder scientific progress, but to ensure that such progress takes place within the framework of human dignity, environmental safety, and social justice. Thus, national legislators and international institutions must proactively develop legal frameworks that adapt to biotechnological innovation.